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2014年 21卷 3期
刊出日期：2014-03-15
Material
Metallurgy and Metal Working
Review
Review
275
Jian-xun FU,Guo-hao TANG,Ren-jie ZHAO,Weng-sing HWANG
Carbon Reduction Programs and Key Technologies in Global Steel Industry
Greenhouse gases, particularly the carbon dioxide, cause global warming and extreme weather, which has become a serious threat to human beings. The steel industry creates enormous amounts of carbon emission and has tremendous potential in carbon reduction. Considering the consistently increasing demand of iron and steel, to obtain significant carbon reduction by reducing the steel production is not practical, thus the development and implementation of carbon reduction programs and technologies is important for the steel industry. Despite the significant potential of carbon reduction in the steel industry, ironmaking and steelmaking processes are complex. Therefore, researches and developments for the carbon reduction must focus on key processes. Here, key processes and technologies adopted in ULCOS program in EU, COURSE 50 program in Japan, POSCO program in South Korea, AISI programs in US and other carbon reduction programs are summarized and evaluated, and feasible suggestions for carbon reduction in developing countries are presented. If effective measures can be referred to and taken in developing countries, global carbon emission can be greatly reduced.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 275-281 [
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Metallurgy and Metal Working
282
Chang-sheng LI,Jin-shan CHEN,Wen-long HAN,You-yuan LI,Bo FU
Thermal Scratch on Surface of SUS430 Stainless Steel Strip in Cold Rolling Process
The thermal scratch significantly influences the surface quality of the stainless steel in cold strip rolling. The thermal scratch has a close relation to the rolling parameters, the rolls surface and the emulsions used in rolling. In order to explain the thermal scratch on the strip surface, the cold rolling process of SUS430 stainless steel strip was investigated in the laboratory. The thermal scratch defect occurs frequently in the second rolling pass (maximum reduction in height is 32. 3%), especially on the lower surface of strips. When concentration and temperature of the emulsion are the same, the thermal scratch on the surface of the strip is aggravated with increasing the roll surface roughness. With the same roll surface roughness and emulsion concentration, the thermal scratch is obviously more severe at an emulsion temperature of 63 ℃ than 55 ℃. With the same roll surface roughness and emulsion temperature, the thermal scratch is distinctly weaker at the emulsion concentration of 6% than that of 3%.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 282-286 [
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287
Hua-gui HUANG,Yong LIU,Feng-shan DU,Lei CHEN
Void Closure Behavior in Large Diameter Steel Rod during H-V Rolling Process
In order to reveal the mechanism and condition of void closure in large diameter steel rod during horizontal-vertical (H-V) groove rolling process, a three-dimensional thermomechanically coupled finite element model was established for 9-stand H-V groove rolling process aiming at a 150 mm steel rod production line. A spherical hole with diameter from 2 to 10 mm was preset into the center of continuous casting billet with a rectangle cross section of 300 mm×360 mm in this model to simulate the void defect, and then finite element analyses were carried out to observe and quantify the void shape evolution in each pass on the three orthogonal coordinate plane sections. The results showed that the void was formed roughly in the reduction and extension directions, and crushed gradually from spherical shape to an approximate ellipsoid, micro-crack and finally to be closed. A quantitative analysis was carried out by using elliptic radii and closure ratio to describe this evolution process; it indicated that the longest axis of the ellipsoid coincided with the rolling line, and the second and third axes were alternatively horizontal and vertical on the exit cross section according to change of the reduction direction in H-V groove. The void closure behavior during H-V rolling was more complicated than that of common horizontal rolling, and the influence of groove type and the extension coefficient on the void closure ratio was presented. Finally, a pilot rolling experiment was performed on a 5-stand H-V experimental mill to verify the numerical simulation results, and the experimental results are in good agreement with the numerical simulation results.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 287-294 [
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295
Jian-zhao CAO,De-wen ZHAO,Shun-hu ZHANG,Wen PENG,Shu-zong CHEN,Dian-hua ZHANG
Analysis of Hot Tandem Rolling Force with Logarithmic Velocity Field and EA Yield Criterion
In order to analyze the hot tandem rolling force, a new logarithmic velocity field is proposed. Using the field and linear EA (equal area) yield criterion, the plastic deformation power for plate rolling is analyzed, and the friction power is obtained based on the co-line vector inner product method. Then analytical solution of plate rolling power functional is obtained. Finally, by minimizing the power functional, the rolling force and torque are received. Compared with those measured ones in hot tandem rolling on-line, the calculated rolling forces are in good agreement with the actual measured ones since the maximum error is less than 12%. Moreover, the effects of various rolling conditions such as thickness reduction, friction factor and shape factor, upon separating force, location of neutral angle, and stress state coefficient are discussed systematically.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 295-299 [
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300
Wen PENG,Zi-ying LIU,Xi-lin YANG,Jian-zhao CAO,Dian-hua ZHANG
Optimization of Temperature and Force Adaptation Algorithm in Hot Strip Mill
In the hot strip rolling control system, the temperature distribution and deformation resistance are the main parameters affecting prediction of rolling force. In order to improve the model prediction precision, an optimization algorithm based on objective function was put forward, in which the penalty function index was adopted. During the adaptation process, the temperature distribution and deformation resistance were taken as the optimized parameters, and the Nelder-Mead simplex algorithm was used to search the optimal solution of the objective function. Furthermore, the temperature adaptation and force adaptation were solved simultaneously. Application results show that the method can improve the accuracy of the rolling force model obviously, and it can meet the demand of the industrial production and has a good application prospect.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 300-305 [
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306
Chuan CHEN,Shu-sen CHENG,Xi-bin GUO
Hazard Control of NOx in Hot Stove
Hazard control of NOx is very important for the long life of hot stove shell and environmental protection. NOx concentrations during different operation periods of hot stove were calculated according to thermodynamical and dynamical analyses. The results were verified by the previously measured data. Then, the influence of hot stove operation parameters on NOx concentration and the mechanism of liquid water formation in hot stove were studied. The results indicated that in gas period, the dome temperature should be controlled below 1420℃ in order to decrease NOx emission. In the case of banking operation, NOx concentration was about 40-60 times higher than that in gas period. Hence, reasonable measures should be taken to reduce banking operation, especially in the situation of large excess air ratio. Since NOx formed during the whole operation process, the most effective way of preventing liquid water and HNO3 generation is to control the pipe and shell temperature, which should be higher than the condensation temperature of water vapour. The condensation temperature should be considered as the design temperature of pipe and shell for hot stove.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 306-311 [
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312
Qing-hai PANG,Jian-liang ZHANG,Rui MAO,Zhe JIANG,Tong LIU
Mechanism of Effect of Microwave Modification on Pulverized Coal Combustion Properties
The mechanism of microwave modification on facilitating the combustion properties of pulverized coal (PC) was investigated. Experimental researches on granularity and functional group as well as combustion properties of PC before and after modification were carried out. Micromorphology observation indicated that the size of PC particles was relatively small, which was in accordance with the results of granularity analysis of PC. FT-IR (Fourier-transform infrared) spectra of two PCs indicated that the proportion of the functional groups with high activity increased after microwave irradiation. Furthermore, no valid effect of microwave was found on carbon matrix except small variations in PC particle size, which only led to subtle improvement in combustion of residual coke. Activation energies of Yungang and Yangquan PCs in temperature zone between 450-650 ℃ were reduced by 12. 00% and 10. 13%, respectively, which meant that microwave modification might effectively facilitate the combustion properties of PC. Nevertheless, decrease in activation energies of residual cokes was 3. 56% and 3. 67% respectively, which was subtle and can be regarded as the result of smaller particle size produced by microwave irradiation.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 312-320 [
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321
Jung-hyun PARK,Seong-ik HAN,Jong-shik KIM
Improvement of Shape Recognition Performance of Sendzimir Mill Control Systems Using Echo State Neural Networks
High rigidity twenty-high Sendzimir mills (ZRMs) are widely used for rolling stainless steels, silicon sheets, etc. A ZRM uses a small diameter work roll to produce massive rolling forces. Since a work roll with a small diameter can be bent easily, strips often have complex shapes with mixed quarter and deep edge waves in the shape of plates. In order to solve this problem, fuzzy neural network controls are generally used for shape recognition in ZRM control systems. Among various neural network types, the multi-layer perceptron (MLP) is typically used in current ZRMs. However, an MLP causes the loss of a large amount of shape recognition data. To improve the shape recognition performance of ZRM control systems, echo state networks (ESNs) are proposed to be used. Through simulation results, it is found that shape recognition performance could be improved using the proposed ESN method.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 321-327 [
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328
Zhi-qiang ZHANG,Jian-li SONG,Jian-hua FU,Yong-tang LI,Yi-na GUO
A Refined Model of Three-roller Elastoplastic Asymmetrical Pre-bending of Plate
The geometry of plate after edge pre-bending mode is compared with that after roll-bending mode and the relationship among edge pre-bending angle, pre-bending edge length, and cylindrical desired radius is presented for a three-roller plate bender with bottom rollers adjustable horizontally. The analytical moment-curvature model and springback model for pure bending are established, assuming that the stress-strain relationship of material is linear, and the material is in plain strain and yields according to Mises yield criterion. The mathematical model for three-roller edge pre-bending of plate is developed considering the effect of pre-bending edge length, bottom roller radius, friction between plate and roller, etc. The plate tensile test and plate bending test are done and the numerical results agree well with the test data. The results are shown graphically and analyzed in the following aspects: (1) the error between numerical results and test data of top roller force; (2) the influence of bottom roller radius, relative curvature, and bending arc length on springback angle; (3) the relationship between springback ratio and edge pre-bending angle.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 328-334 [
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Material
335
Guang-ming CAO,Xiao-jiang LIU,Bin SUN,Zhen-yu LIU
Morphology of Oxide Scale and Oxidation Kinetics of Low Carbon Steel
The oxidation kinetics and composition of oxide scales on low carbon steel (SPHC) were studied during isothermal oxidation. Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) was used to simulate isothermal oxidation process of SPHC for 240 min under air condition, and the temperature range was from 500 to 900 ℃. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to observe cross-sectional scale morphology and analyze composition distribution of oxide scales. The morphology of oxide scale was classical three-layer structure. Fe2O3 developed as whiskers at the outermost layer, and interlayer was perforated-plate Fe3O4 while innermost layer was pyramidal FeO. From the oxidation curves, the oxidation mass gain per unit area with time was of parabolic relation and oxidation rate slowed down. On the basis of experimental data, the isothermal oxidation kinetics model was derived and oxidation activation energy of SPHC steel was 127. 416 kJ/mol calculated from kinetics data.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 335-341 [
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342
Xin LIU,,Wu-gang YU,Qi-fu ZHANG,She-ming JIANG
Influence of Surface Roughness of Galvanized Steel Sheet on Self-lubricated Coating
Three different thicknesses of self-lubricated coatings were prepared on galvanized steel sheets with different surface roughness (Ra). Performances of the coatings were evaluated by various laboratory tests. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscope (AFM), neutral salt spraying test (NSST), reciprocating friction and wear test were taken in order to characterize the coatings. Results show that the self-lubricated coating has good corrosion resistance and lubricating property. In 0. 857-1. 629 μm of Ra value, the relationship between friction coefficients of the self-lubricated steel sheets and the surface roughness of the galvanized steel sheets likes a parabolic curve, and has a peak value of friction coefficient in certain range of Ra. Affected by the hereditary surface topography of the galvanized steel sheet, dents on the surface of self-lubricated steel become deeper and larger with the increase of the surface roughness of the galvanized steel sheets. The influence of the surface roughness of the galvanized steel sheet on the corrosion resistance of the self-lubricated coating steel is similar to that on friction coefficient of self-lubricated coatings, like a parabolic curve.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 342-347 [
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348
Chun-bo HUANG,,Tian-cheng LIU,,Xiang-yue WANG,,Cao-wei LU,,De-ren LI,,Zhi-chao LU,
Magnetic Properties of Nanocrystalline Powder Cores Using Mechanically Crushed Powders
Toroidal shape FeCuNbSiB nanocrystalline alloy powder cores were prepared by cold pressing using mechanically crushed and ball-milled powders, respectively. The morphologies and their effects on the magnetic properties of the compacted cores were investigated. Compared with ball-milled powders, mechanically crushed ones have more regular shapes and rounder edges, which lead to better inter-particle insulation. FeCuNbSiB nanocrystalline alloy powder cores fabricated from mechanically crushed powders exhibit remarkably lower core loss of about 248. 2 kW/m3 at 100 kHz for maximum flux density Bm=0. 1 T, and more stable permeability up to 10 MHz. Moreover, the dc-bias property could be improved significantly using mechanically crushed powders.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 348-351 [
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352
Yan-xin WU,Di TANG,Hai-tao JIANG,Zhen-li MI,Yao XUE,Hai-peng WU
Low Cycle Fatigue Behavior and Deformation Mechanism of TWIP Steel
Low cycle fatigue behavior of TWIP (twinning induced plasticity) steel was investigated in axial symmetric tension-compression cyclic loading pattern. Fracture surfaces and microstructures were examined by optical, scanning electron and transmission electron microscopes. It was found that the fatigue life at the strain amplitude of 0. 4% is up to 15000 cycles, which is much longer than TRIP780 and HSLA800 steels. The strain hardening and softening features are significant until the strain amplitude comes to 1. 25%. Persistent slip bands and tiny mechanical twinning layers were observed after fatigue deformation. Deformation mechanism of TWIP steel at low cycle fatigue process is not only twinning, but a complex of both twinning and persistent slip bands.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 352-358 [
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359
Zhi-hong ZHANG,,,,Xiang-xin XUE,,,
Bainite Transformation of Low-carbon and Boron-containing Steel under Continuous Cooling
The effects of deformation temperature and strain on bainite transformation of low carbon steel and boron-containing steel were investigated under continuous cooling conditions by means of dilatometric measurement and microstructure observation. The results show that with decreasing the deformation temperature from 1000 to 800 ℃ and increasing strains, bainite start temperature for boron-containing low carbon steel increases, whereas it decreases for low carbon steel under the same condition. The bainite microstructures are easily obtained for boron-containing steel deformed at different temperatures and different strains compared with plain low carbon steel. With increasing the continuous cooling rate, the bainite start temperature under deformed condition is about 20 ℃ higher than that under undeformed condition for boron-containing steel, but it changes slightly when the cooling rate is 20 ℃/s or more.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 359-363 [
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364
De-ning ZOU,Xiao-hua LIU,Ying HAN,Wei ZHANG,Jiao LI,Kun WU
Influence of Heat Treatment Temperature on Microstructure and Property of 00Cr13Ni5Mo2 Supermartensitic Stainless Steel
The microstructural evolution and mechanical property of 00Cr13Ni5Mo2 supermartensitic stainless steel (SMSS) subjected to different heat treatments were investigated. Room tensile tests, hardness tests, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction were conducted on the heat-treated steels. It is found that the microstructure of the heat-treated steel is composed of tempered lath martensite, retained austenite and δ-ferrite. The austenitizing temperature and tempering temperature have a significant effect on the microstructural changes, which leads to the complex variations of mechanical properties. The fine tempered lath martensite and more dispersed reversed austenite in the microstructure facilitate improving the comprehensive mechanical properties of the studied steel. The optimal heat treatment process of 00Cr13Ni5Mo2 SMSS is obtained by austenitizing at 1000 ℃ for 0. 5 h+air cooling followed by tempering at 630 ℃ for 2 h+air cooling, where the excellent combination of tensile strength, elongation and hardness can be achieved.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 364-368 [
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369
Feng CHAI,Hang SU,Cai-fu YANG,Dong-mei XUE
Nucleation Behavior Analysis of Intragranular Acicular Ferrite in a Ti-killed C-Mn Steel
By using a Gleeble 3500D thermo-mechanical simulator, the nucleation behavior of intragranular acicular ferrites (IAF) was studied in a Ti-killed C-Mn steel. During continuous cooling transformation, the allotriomorphic ferrite (AF) and ferrite side plate (FSP) microstructures grew more rapidly with the temperature decreasing from 800 to 650 ℃, and the IAF microstructure was dominant within austenite grain with further cooling to 600 ℃. The diffusion bonding experiment and the effect of C, Mn and Si concentrations on the Ae3 temperature by thermodynamic calculation confirm that Ti2O3 itself absorbs neighboring Mn atoms to form Mn-depleted zone (MDZ), which promotes the nucleation of IAF microstructure effectively. High temperature holding tests indicate that the nucleation potential of IAF microstructure was lowered in the Ti-killed C-Mn steel when it was treated at high temperature (1250 ℃) for a longer time, which is attributed to the saturated absorption degree of Mn atoms by titanium oxide.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 369-374 [
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375
Xian-ping WEI,,Wen-jie ZHENG,Zhi-gang SONG,Ting LEI, Qi-long YONG,Qing-cheng XIE
Strain-induced Precipitation Behavior of δ Phase in Inconel 718 Alloy
To study the precipitation dynamics of δ phase in Inconel 718 alloy, two-stage interrupted compression method was used in the region of cold deformation temperatures and the temperatures range from 875 to 975 ℃. The precipitation-time-temperature (PTT) curve of δ phase was obtained by analyzing the softening kinetics curves. For verifying the type of the precipitates and confirming the validity of the test, the transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and energy dispersion spectrum (EDS) were employed. Experimental results indicated that the PTT curve for δ precipitation exhibited a typical “C” shape and the nose points of start and finish precipitation were about 5 s at 920 ℃ and 2815 s at 940 ℃, respectively. In addition, the nucleation of δ was heterogeneous. The nucleation sites varied with temperatures, including dislocation, grain boundary and stacking fault within γ″ phase. And δ particles grew quickly at higher temperature with lower density. Moreover, the driving force of nucleation was mainly including chemical free energy, interfacial energy and dislocation distorted energy. And the dislocation distorted energy could decide the density of nucleation in the strain-induced process.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 375-381 [
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382
Tian XIA,,Yi-wen ZHANG,,Yue CHI,
Effect of Hf and Zr Contents on Stress-rupture and Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Performances in FGH96 PM Superalloy
Four experimental FGH96 alloys with various contents of Hf and Zr (0 and 0. 04%, 0. 3% and 0. 04%, 0. 6% and 0. 04%, 0. 3% and 0. 06%, respectively) were produced using PREP (plasma rotating electrode process)+HIP (hot isostatic pressing) route. The unnotched and notched stress-rupture properties and fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR) of all the experimental alloys were investigated to study the effect of Hf and Zr. Relevant fracture morphology and microstructure were observed by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The results revealed that appropriate content of Hf could lengthen stress-rupture life, eliminate notch sensitivity and slower FCGR. Microstructure analysis showed that the amount of γ′ phase should be increased or decreased by adjusting Hf and Zr contents, and MC carbide and oxide coupled growth should be increased by adding Hf content, which caused oxycarbide to precipitate along grain boundary and strengthen the alloy. It was found that excessive Zr in Hf-containing FGH96 alloy had certain deleterious effects on stress-rupture property because there was strong Zr segregation at prior particle boundary, leaving a long chain of large-size oxides along the boundary. The optimal content of Hf and Zr in FGH96 alloy was 0. 6% and 0. 04%, respectively.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 382-388 [
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389
Biao GUO,Sui-cai ZHANG,Chang-chun GE,
Constitutive Equations for Flow Behavior of Powder-forged Fe-0. 5C-2Cu Steel under Hot Compression
To investigate the hot deformation behavior of powder-forged (P/F) Fe-0. 5C-2Cu steel, the hot compression tests were conducted at temperatures ranging from 900 to 1000 ℃ and strain rates from 0. 1 to 10 s-1 using Gleeble-1500 thermal simulator. The true stress-true strain curves at different temperatures and strain rates of P/F steel were obtained. It is found that dynamic recovery only occurs as strain rate is 10 s-1 at 900 ℃, and the dynamic recrystallization is the main softening mechanism. The flow stress increases with decreasing temperature and increasing strain rate. The experimental data are employed to develop constitutive equations on the basis of the Arrhenius-type equation by introducing the strain with nonlinear fitting. The flow stresses predicted by the proposed constitutive equations are in good agreement with the experimental values, and the correlation coefficient (R2) and the average absolute relative error (AARE) are 0. 99525 and 3. 07% respectively. These results indicate the proposed constitutive equations can effectively describe the hot deformation behavior of the material.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 389-395 [
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396
Yan GUI,Qiao-yu XU,Yan-ling GUO
Change Rules of Γ2 Particles in Hot-dipped Zn-Ti Coating
Hot-dip Zn-Ti galvanizing can restrain the excess growth of the coating which has better corrosion resistances than hot-dip pure Zn. The change rules of Γ2 intermetallic compound in hot-dip Zn-Ti galvanizing is investigated by immersion time, titanium content and the slag test using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). And the mechanism of nucleation and growth of Γ2 intermetallic compound is analysed. The results show that, when adding 0. 05mass% titanium to the zinc bath, the Γ2 particles form in the η layer, which nucleate by obtaining Ti atoms from the η phase and Fe atoms from the dissolving ζ phase layer. Moreover, the more titanium is added into the bath, the more and bigger Γ2 particles appear. The Г2 particles in the coatings grow up noticeably with prolonging the immersion time.
2014 Vol. 21 (3): 396-403 [
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