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2023 Vol. 30 No. 1
Published: 2023-01-25
1
Lei Cao, Li-guang Zhu, Zhi-hong Guo
Research status of inclusions in bearing steel and discussion on non-alloy deoxidation process
Non-metallic inclusion in steel is a very key factor affecting the fatigue life and quality stability of high-quality bearing steel. Inclusions mainly affect the fatigue life and toughness of the material by affecting the continuity of the steel matrix, thereby endangering the safety and stability of the equipment. The research progress of inclusion formation, removal and modification was discussed. Based on the current research status of Al deoxidation or Si deoxidation process, the feasibility of non-alloy deoxidation process for high-quality bearing steel was proposed and discussed. C or H
2
is used as non-alloy deoxidizer, and the deoxidation products are CO and H
2
O gases, which are easy to be removed from the molten steel. There are few studies on the non-alloy deoxidation process, especially the research and application of C or H
2
deoxidation for high-quality bearing steel. However, the non-alloy deoxidation process is of great significance for reducing oxygen content and improving cleanliness of high-quality bearing steel. Therefore, it is necessary to study the mechanism and kinetics of C and H
2
deoxidation and analyze the factors affecting deoxidation effect systematically, so as to provide a solid theoretical basis for the practice of non-alloy deoxidation process for high-quality bearing steel.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 1-20 [
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21
Yu-xiao Xue, Jian Pan, De-qing Zhu, Xin Wang, Bo-hua Li, Wei Liu
Difference of sintering performance of different types of limonitic nickel laterite
To achieve the more extensive utilization of limonitic nickel laterite, the difference of sintering performance of different types of limonitic nickel laterite including high-gangue and low-gangue nickel ores was investigated by sinter pot tests and relevant mechanism analyses such as thermodynamic analysis and the chemistry and mineralogy of product sinter. With the type of limonitic nickel laterite transformed from high-gangue to low-gangue nickel ore, tumble index and productivity are improved from 45.87% and 0.97 t m
-2
h
-1
to 50.16% and 1.05 t m
-2
h
-1
, respectively, and solid fuel rate is reduced from 140.52 to 131.13 kg/t, indicating that the low-gangue nickel ore possesses relatively better sintering performance. This is mainly due to the fact that the much lower contents of MgO and Al
2
O
3
improve the formation ability and fluidity of liquid phase, which eventually contributes to the formation of relatively tighter sinter microstructure with the lower sinter porosity, more silico-ferrite of calcium and alumina amount and better bonding of hercynite by liquid phases. In addition, the metallurgical performance and nickel content of product sinter would not be reduced as different types of limonitic nickel laterite are blended for sintering. On this basis, it is entirely feasible to more widely utilize limonitic nickel laterite and simultaneously obtain much better-quality Ni-containing product sinter via effective sintering strengthening technologies.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 21-30 [
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31
Yi-fan Wang, Tao Yang, Hao-yu Wang, Long Ding, Yun-fei Luo, Hong-ming Long
Application of steam injection in iron ore sintering: fuel combustion efficiency and CO emissions
Improving the combustion efficiency of fuels is essential to reducing pollutant emissions in the iron ore sintering process. The sintering bed surface steam-injection technology has attracted significant research interest for its potential advantages in low-energy consumption and low emission. The effect of steam injection on fuel combustion efficiency and CO emission was studied by comparing the thermodynamic response from the sintering process before and after steam injection. The mechanism of improving combustion efficiency was also revealed. The results indicated that the sintering gas medium of H
2
O–H
2
–N
2
–O
2
with the blown steam improved the heat transfer conditions of fuel combustion and promoted the water gas reaction. The optimum state of steam injection was achieved at 15 min after ignition with 0.02 m
3
min
-1
. The CO emission reduction is 10.91% compared with the base case. The combustion efficiency was 88.83%, 6.15% higher than conventional sintering, and the solid fuel consumption was reduced by 1.15 kg t
-1
. It was indicated that steam injection would improve combustion efficiency and reduce solid fuel consumption. Meanwhile, the steam injection could improve the combustion kinetic conditions in the zone of unburned fuel and low oxygen partial pressure. It was conducive to the reaction of H
2
O with C and CO to convert the CO of reducing atmosphere to CO
2
, which in turn realized the complete combustion of fuel and CO and improved the efficiency of fuel combustion.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 31-39 [
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40
Yao-zu Wang, Jian-liang Zhang, Zhi-hui Chen, Zheng-jian Liu, Chen-yang Xu, Yu-meng Li, Li-ming Ma
A quantitative investigation on consolidation of titanium-containing pellets during roasting process
The measurement method and quantitative indexes of iron ore consolidation characteristic temperature (CCT) during roasting, including consolidation starting temperature, highest consolidation rate temperature, and consolidation termination temperature, were improved based on previous research. The mineral properties of V–Ti magnetite (Panzhihua) were analyzed, and the CCT of V–Ti magnetite was calculated. To investigate the effect of mineral types on CCT, a series of trials were carried out by using various ores, including high-grade magnetite ore, high silicon iron ore, and V–Ti magnetite ore. The greatest shrinkage of V–Ti magnetite was 6.7%, the consolidation starting temperature was 991 °C, and the termination temperature was 1384 °C. The results of X-ray diffraction analysis indicated that the V–Ti magnetite ore was composed of titanomagnetite, peridotite, and other minerals, which is more complicated than conventional magnetite. As a result, the temperature at the maximum rate of consolidation and the temperature at the termination of consolidation are the greatest. FeTiO
3
and MgFe
2
O
4
in V–Ti magnetite may inhibit the creation of sinter necks between hematite particles. Liquid phase occurs inside the pellet when the temperature surpasses 1250 °C, which may accelerate particle growth and the formation of a sintering neck within the pellets.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 40-50 [
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51
Hang-hang Zhu, Min Wang, Cheng Yao, Zhong-liang Wang, Xiao-liang Wang, Yan-ping Bao
Influence of non-iso-velocity casting on flow-field index of a 41-ton six-strand Tundish by physical and numerical modeling
The flow-field index in a 41-ton six-strand tundish is considered through adjusting the ratio of the casting velocity between the strands to eliminate the negative impact of iso-velocity casting in multi-strand tundish on the consistency of each strand due to the large ratio of length to width with narrow shape structure, resulting in poor consistency of each strand. In particular, the response time of strand-1 and strand-6 is relatively long, which affects the uniformity of the temperature field and flow field of the entire tundish. On the basis of verifying that the error between the numerical simulations and hydraulic experiments is less than 6%, six cases with the casting velocity ratio changing from 0.8 to 1.3 (with an interval of 0.1) are considered by calculation of numerical models. It is concluded that the consistency of each flow can be obviously improved by increasing the casting velocity ratio between side-strand and middle-strand. With increasing the casting velocity ratio, the flow field in the tundish became much active, the temperature field presented well uniformity, and the tracer concentration distribution in local dead zones was improved.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 51-63 [
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64
Chun-feng Bai, Bo Wang, Jie Ma, Jie-yu Zhang, Wan-ping Pan
Modeling effect of cooling conditions on solidification process during thermal cycle of rollers in twin-roll strip casting
In the twin-roll strip casting process, molten steel solidifies by losing heat through its interface with the casting rollers. The heat extraction along this interface has an effect on the quality of the strips and should be affected by coating, rolls’ material, and cooling water flow rate. It is necessary to understand the effect of these casting parameters on the solidification structure of twin-roll strip casting. A three-dimensional computational domain is set up to simulate the solidification process of molten steel and heat exchange between steel strip/air, coating, rolls, and cooling water in the channel of roll sleeves. The effect of the cooling water intensity and flow intensity of molten steel in the pool on the solidification structures is studied during the thermal cycle of rolls in the twin-roll strip casting. These predicted results are helpful to optimize casting parameters and improve the strip quality in the twin-roll strip casting process.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 64-73 [
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74
Yi Huang, Cheng-bin Shi, Xiu-xiu Wan, Yu-jing Liang, Jing Li, Shu-jie Liu
Viscosity and surface tension of CaF
2
–CaO–Al
2
O
3
-based slag with varying SiO
2
and B
2
O
3
contents for ESR of rotor steel
The effect of SiO
2
and B
2
O
3
on viscosity and surface tension of CaF
2
–CaO–Al
2
O
3
–MgO–SiO
2
–B
2
O
3
slag designed for electroslag remelting of rotor steel was investigated. The viscosity of the slag melts increases with increasing the SiO
2
content from 0.37 to 8.03 mass%, and the viscous activation energy increases from 54.21 to 58.49 kJ/mol. Increasing B
2
O
3
content of the slag from 0 to 3.62 mass% exhibits a similar effect on the viscosity, and the activation energy increases from 47.30 to 55.71 kJ/mol. The increase in the viscosity and activation energy for viscous flow of slag is attributed to the enhanced polymerization degree of slag melts network with increasing either SiO
2
or B
2
O
3
content. The surface tension of slag melts decreases with increasing temperature. The surface tension of slag melts decreases with increasing either SiO
2
or B
2
O
3
content, which is originated from the increase in the polymerization degree and the decrease in the CaO content of the slag.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 74-81 [
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82
Yu-tuo Zhang, Hao Zou
Solidification segregation behavior of Nb-containing 310S steel
The solidification characteristics and segregation behavior of solute elements Nb, Ni, Mn, Si, Cr and C in 0.3 wt.% Nb– 310S steel were investigated using the isothermal solidification quenching experiment and Thermo-Calc calculation. The phase transformation for 0.3%Nb–310S steel under equilibrium condition can be summarized as follows: liquid (L) → L + γ (1406 °C) → γ (1334 °C) → γ + NbC (1322 °C) → γ + NbC + M
23
C
6
(1006 °C) → γ + NbC + M
23
C
6
→ σ (755 °C). The results showed that the solidification began with the formation of primary austenite dendrite. The volume fraction of the liquid phase decreased rapidly as the temperature decreased in the initial solidification stage, and then, the liquid phase fraction decreased slowly. When austenite formed, Mn and Ni were enriched in the solid phase, while Nb and C were rejected into the liquid. Nb was present the highest segregation coefficient in 0.3%Nb–310S austenitic stainless steel. The segregation of Nb was the most serious, followed by Mn, Ni and C. Cr and Si exhibited slight segregation during the solidification. The solidification was terminated by the formation of NbC phase.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 82-87 [
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88
Rui-hao Li, Hai-jun Li, Ning Xiang, Guo-dong Wang, Li-juan Bai
Modeling flow stress and grain size of GCr15 bearing steel at hightemperature deformation near end of solidification
Hot-core heavy reduction rolling is an innovative technology for continuous casting billet at the end of solidification. The deformation characteristics of GCr15 bearing billet were investigated over the temperature range of 1000–1300 °C with the strain rate of 0.001–10 s
-1
by the Gleeble 3800 thermo-mechanical simulator. Firstly, the true stress–strain data are calibrated by the friction correction method to acquire accurate parameters near the solidus. Then, the Laasraoui-type constitutive model and dynamic austenite grain size model are established by the thermal compression results and corrosion experimental results, and the predicted values of the experimental interval are obtained by using the models. Meanwhile, the accuracy of models is verified by comparing the predicted curves with the experimental data. Last but not the least, the dynamic parameters between solidus and liquidus are predicted by the two models, and the difficulty of experimental collecting near the melting point is solved.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 88-101 [
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102
Xiang-jun Bao, Jing Xu, Guang Chen, Xu Chen, Hong-guang Zhang, Yi-ming Shen, Wei Zhai
Mechanism and application of an online intelligent evaluation model for energy consumption of a reheating furnace
An online model was proposed to identify the reasons behind changes in the energy consumption of the reheating furnace of a steel processing plant. The heat conversion of the furnace was analyzed and integrated with the fuel consumption of the furnace to obtain a model of the energy consumption. Combined with the mechanism analysis, the basic parameters affecting energy consumption were determined, and four key influencing factors were obtained: furnace output, furnace charging temperature, furnace tapping temperature, and steel type. The specific calculation method of the contribution of each influencing factor was derived to define the conditions of the baseline energy consumption, while the online data were used to calculate the energy value and the actual performance value of the baseline energy consumption. The contribution of each influencing factor was determined through normalization. The cloud platform was used for database reconstruction and programming to realize the online intelligent evaluation of the energy consumption of the reheating furnace. Finally, a case study of the evaluation of the practical energy consumption of a steel rolling furnace in a steel plant was presented. The intelligent evaluation results were quantified and displayed online, and the performance of the system in reducing production line energy consumption was demonstrated.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 102-111 [
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112
Jin-xing Cui, Yan Peng, Jin Wang
Instability of roll nonlinear system with structural clearance in rolling process
The vibration instability of the nonlinear dynamic system of the rolls considering the structural clearance was theoretically investigated, which is caused by the roll assembly accuracy deviation in the hot rolling process. Firstly, the dynamic rolling force model was established based on the Wekbrod model under the influence of the roll grinding deviation and the stability of the deformation zone. Further, the horizontal and vertical direction coupling dynamic model of the work roll was established considering the structural clearance between the roll and mill frame. Then, the nonlinear dynamic equation was solved by the Runge–Kutta method. The simulation results show that the dynamic system presents the nonlinear vibration characteristics, which shows that the instability of the system is a slowly varying response process with the characteristics of self-excited vibration and forced vibration. Finally, the comparison results show the consistency between the simulation and the test.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 112-125 [
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126
Jiao-jiao Bai, Feng Yu, Cun-yu Wang, Hui Wang, Yang Xu, Xing-pin Chen, Wen-quan Cao
Effect of cyclic quenching treatment on microstructural evolution and properties of ductile cast iron
Due to the coarse grain microstructure and low hardness of ductile cast iron (DCI), this material is unable to meet the performance requirements of bearing structural materials. To obtain ultra-fine-grained and ultra-hardened DCI, the influence of a cyclic quenching treatment on the evolution process and properties of DCI after three cycles of quenching at 860 °C for 30 min was investigated through morphology and grain-size characterization, X-ray diffraction analysis, and mechanical-property determination of DCI. It was found that the microstructure and performance depended strongly on the process of the cyclic quenching. With an increasing number of cycles, the grain size of austenite was significantly refined from 41.2 to 12.3 μm, and the length and width of lath/plate martensite, as well as the lath and twins, are decreased. In the meantime, the morphology of retained austenite changed from blocky to granular, together with the stability increased. The experimental sample obtained a performance with a hardness higher than 60 HRC after cyclic quenching treatment due to the refined grain size and increased dislocation density.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 126-136 [
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137
Xiang-yu Xu, Zhi-qi Zeng, Qian-ren Tian, Chen-wei Cao, Ping Shen, Jian-xun Fu
Application of fractal theory to study morphology of manganese sulfide inclusion in resulfurized free-cutting steels
The morphology and distribution of manganese sulfide (MnS) inclusions have a significant influence on the comprehensive performance, which is an important research field for resulfurized steels. Based on the experiments of non-aqueous electrolyte and scanning electron microscope observation, the fractal theory was employed to study the three-dimensional morphologies of MnS inclusions. The results showed that the edge fractal dimension of MnS inclusions was between 1.59 and 1.88. In addition, similar morphology of MnS inclusions had a close fractal dimension. The MnS edge fractal dimension is highly positively correlated with the morphological parameters. The multifractal spectrums of MnS inclusions on two-dimensional plane of as-cast and as-rolled resulfurized free-cutting steels were calculated. The large-size MnS inclusions belong to large probability subset, while the small-size MnS inclusions belong to small probability subset. The multifractal spectrum can truly and effectively reflect the difference and non-uniformity of distribution of MnS inclusions on 2D plane. On the premise of similar content of MnS, with the refinement of MnS inclusions, the multifractal spectrum width and the multifractal spectrum symmetry parameter were decreased. The multifractal spectrum provides a new method for studying the second phase in materials.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 137-149 [
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150
Xu Xie, Ming Zhong, Tan Zhao, Cong Wang
Probing microstructural evolution in weld metals subjected to varied CaF
2
–TiO
2
flux cored wires under high heat input electro-gas welding
Fused CaF
2
–TiO
2
fluxes have been designed, prepared, and applied in the flux cored wires to join EH36 shipbuilding steels under high heat input electro-gas welding. Ensuing microstructural evolution in the weld metals subjected to varied CaF
2
–TiO
2
flux cored wires has been fully documented. It has been demonstrated that as the content of TiO
2
in the fused fluxes increases, columnar grain size increases, and major constituents in the weld metal change from lath bainite, to granular bainite, and then to acicular ferrite. Such phenomena are elucidated via salient chemical reactions involving oxygen pickup and concurrent titanium transfer.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 150-157 [
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158
Jun-shuai Wang, Wen-long Xiao, Lei Ren, Yu Fu, Chao-li Ma
Effect of oxygen addition and annealing time on microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti–34Nb alloy
The effect of oxygen addition and annealing time on microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti–34Nb and Ti–34Nb– 0.2O alloys was investigated. The addition of O suppresses the martensitic transformation. The phase composition changes from single α'' phase to α'' + β phases with oxygen addition. The addition of oxygen increases strength significantly at as-received, cold-rolled, and annealed alloys through solid solution strengthening. The accumulation of abundance of defects and grain refinement introduced by cold rolling have a significant strengthening effect but also damage plasticity. The addition of oxygen increases α/β transformation temperature and promotes the precipitation of α phase during annealing in Ti–34Nb–0.2O alloy. α precipitates can inhibit grain growth during annealing. The strength decreases with annealing time increased due to the increase in grain size in Ti–34Nb alloy, while the strength increases in Ti–34Nb–0.2O alloy mainly due to the precipitation of α phase. The cold rolling followed by annealing and addition of oxygen can improve the properties of alloys.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 158-164 [
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165
Qing-bo Yan, Tong Xue, Shi-feng Liu, Wan-lin Wang, Yan Wang, Xi Song, Xin Yang, Wei-wei Shang
A comparative study of surface characterization and corrosion behavior of micro-arc oxidation treated Ti–6Al–4V alloy prepared by SEBM and SLM
Additively manufactured Ti–6Al–4V (TC4) parts have been successfully employed as artificial implants in dental and orthopedic surgery due to their excellent mechanical properties. However, the suboptimal corrosion resistance limits their applications. The surface characterization and corrosion behavior of micro-arc oxidation (MAO) treated TC4 alloy prepared by selective electron beam melting (SEBM) and selective laser melting (SLM) technologies were compared. The corrosion resistance mechanism of SLM-MAO and SEBM-MAO was clarified through the analysis of the microstructure evolution, surface morphology, and electrochemical experiments. The results show that the anatase-type TiO
2
is partially transformed into the slankite phase after MAO treatment. The surface roughness of SEBM sample was reduced by MAO coating, while the surface roughness of SLM sample increased after MAO, which is related to the difference between the microstructure of the deposited samples caused by different additive manufacturing technologies. When MAO time was 15 min, SLM-MAO and SEBM-MAO coating displayed the best and the worst corrosion resistance, respectively.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 165-175 [
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176
Yuan Liu, Shi-zhong Wei
A weighted fuzzy C-means clustering method for hardness prediction
The hardness prediction model was established by support vector regression (SVR). In order to avoid exaggerating the contribution of very tiny alloying elements, a weighted fuzzy C-means (WFCM) algorithm was proposed for data clustering using improved Mahalanobis distance based on random forest importance values, which could play a full role of important features and avoid clustering center overlap. The samples were divided into two classes. The top 10 features of each class were selected to form two feature subsets for better performance of the model. The dimension and dispersion of features decreased in such feature subsets. Comparing four machine learning algorithms, SVR had the best performance and was chosen to modeling. The hyper-parameters of the SVR model were optimized by particle swarm optimization. The samples in validation set were classified according to minimum distance of sample to clustering centers, and then the SVR model trained by feature subset of corresponding class was used for prediction. Compared with the feature subset of original data set, the predicted values of model trained by feature subsets of classified samples by WFCM had higher correlation coefficient and lower root mean square error. It indicated that WFCM was an effective method to reduce the dispersion of features and improve the accuracy of model.
2023 Vol. 30 (1): 176-191 [
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